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Mongolia ; Monggol Ulus in ; in is a landlocked in. Its area is roughly equivalent with the historical territory of , and that term is sometimes used to refer to the current state. It is sandwiched between to the south and to the north. Mongolia does not share a border with , although only 37 kilometres 23 mi separates them. At 1,564,116 square kilometres 603,909 sq mi , Mongolia is the and the fully sovereign country in the world, with a population of around 3 million people. It is also the world's second-largest behind and the largest that does not border a. The country contains very little , as much of its area is covered by grassy , with mountains to the north and west and the to the south. Approximately 30% of the population is or semi-nomadic; is still integral. The majority of its population are. The non-religious population is the second largest group. The majority of the state's citizens are of Mongol ethnicity, although , , and other minorities also live in the country, especially in the west. Mongolia joined the in 1997 and seeks to expand its participation in regional economic and trade groups. The area of what is now Mongolia has been ruled by various , including the , the , the , the , and others. In 1206, founded the , which became the largest in history. His grandson conquered China to establish the. After the collapse of the Yuan, the retreated to Mongolia and resumed their earlier pattern of factional conflict, except during the era of and. In the 16th century, began to spread in Mongolia, being further led by the -founded , which absorbed the country in the 17th century. By the early 1900s, almost one-third of the adult male population were Buddhist monks. After the collapse of the Qing dynasty in 1911, Mongolia , and in 1921 de facto independence from the. Shortly thereafter, the country came under the control of the , which had aided its independence from China. In 1924, the was declared as a Soviet. After the anti-Communist , Mongolia conducted its own peaceful in early 1990. This led to a , a new constitution of 1992, and transition to a. Main articles: and inhabited Mongolia from 850,000 years ago. Modern humans reached Mongolia approximately 40,000 years ago during the. The 21,000 years ago testify to the level of Upper Paleolithic art in northern Mongolia; Mal'ta is now part of Russia. Neolithic agricultural settlements c. Horse-riding nomadism has been documented by archeological evidence in Mongolia during the Copper and Bronze Age 3500—2500 BC ; this culture was active to the in Central Mongolia. The wheeled vehicles found in the burials of the Afanasevans have been dated to before 2200 BC. Pastoral nomadism and metalworking became more developed with the later 2nd millennium BC , 2300—1000 BC and 1500—300 BC , culminating with the Iron Age Empire in 209 BC. Monuments of the pre-Xiongnu Bronze Age include , keregsur , , and rock paintings. Although cultivation of crops has continued since the Neolithic, agriculture has always remained small in scale compared to pastoral nomadism. Agriculture may have first been introduced from the west or arose independently in the region. The population during the has been described as mongoloid in the east of what is now Mongolia, and as europoid in the west. Tocharians and inhabited western Mongolia during the Bronze Age. The mummy of a Scythian warrior, which is believed to be about 2,500 years old, was a 30- to 40-year-old man with blond hair; it was found in , Mongolia. As horse nomadism was introduced into Mongolia, the political center of the also shifted to Mongolia, where it remained until the 18th century CE. The intrusions of northern pastoralists e. When my imperial predecessor erected the Great Wall, all the bowmen nations on the north were subject to the Shan Yu; while the residents inside the wall, who wore the cap and sash, were all under our government: and the myriads of the people, by following their occupations, ploughing and weaving, shooting and hunting, were able to provide themselves with food and clothing... Should I, in concert with the Shan Yu, follow this course, complying with the will of heaven, then compassion for the people will be transmitted from age to age, and extended to unending generations, while the universe will be moved with admiration, and the influence will be felt by neighbouring kingdoms inimical to the Chinese or the Hsiung-nu... As the Hsiung-nu live in the northern regions, where the cold piercing atmosphere comes at an early period, I have ordered the proper authorities to transmit yearly to the Shan Yu, a certain amount of grain, gold, silks of the finer and coarser kinds, and other objects. Now peace prevails all over the world; the myriads of the population are living in harmony, and I and the Shan Yu alone are the parents of the people... After the conclusion of the treaty of peace throughout the world, take notice, the Han will not be the first to transgress. A constant theme in Mongolian history is its relations with China. Since prehistoric times, Mongolia has been inhabited by nomads who, from time to time, formed great confederations that rose to power and prominence. Common institutions were the office of the , the Supreme Council , left and right wings, imperial army and the decimal military system. The first of these empires, the of undetermined ethnicity, were brought together by to form a confederation in 209 BC. Soon they emerged as the greatest threat to the , forcing the latter to construct the. It was guarded by up to almost 300,000 soldiers during marshal 's tenure, as a means of defense against the destructive Xiongnu raids. The vast Xiongnu empire 209 BC—93 AD was followed by the Mongolic 93—234 AD , which also ruled more than the entirety of present-day Mongolia. It ruled a massive empire before being defeated by the 555—745 whose empire was even bigger. The Göktürks laid siege to , present-day , in 576. They were succeeded by the 745—840 who were defeated by the Kyrgyz. The Mongolic , descendants of the Xianbei, ruled Mongolia during the 907—1125 , after which the 1125—1206 rose to prominence. They made those who had heads bow their heads, and who had knees genuflect them. In the east up to the Kadyrkhan common people, in the west up to the Iron Gate they conquered... These Khagans were wise. These Khagans were great. Their servants were wise and great too. Officials were honest and direct with people. They ruled the nation this way. This way they held sway over them. When they died ambassadors from Bokuli Cholug Baekje Korea , Tabgach Tang China , Tibet Tibetan Empire , Avar Khaganate , Rome Byzantine Empire , , Uch-Kurykan, Otuz-Tatars, , came to the funerals. So many people came to mourn over the great Khagans. They were famous Khagans. In the chaos of the late 12th century, a chieftain named finally succeeded in uniting the Mongol tribes between and the. In 1206, he took the title , and waged a series of military campaigns — renowned for their brutality and ferocity — sweeping through much of Asia, and forming the , the largest contiguous land empire in world history. Under his successors it stretched from present-day in the west to in the east, and from in the north to the and in the south, covering some 33,000,000 square kilometres 13,000,000 sq mi , 22% of Earth's total land area and having a population of over 100 million people about a quarter of Earth's total population at the time. The emergence of also significantly eased trade and commerce across Asia during its height. After Genghis Khan's death, the empire was subdivided into four kingdoms or. These eventually became quasi-independent after the 1260—1264 , which broke out in a battle for power following 's death in 1259. He set up his capital in present-day. After more than a century of power, the Yuan was replaced by the in 1368, and the Mongol court fled to the north. As the Ming armies pursued the Mongols into their homeland, they successfully sacked and destroyed the Mongol capital among a few other cities. Some of these attacks were repelled by the Mongols under and his general. Here he created the in 1686. After the expulsion of the Yuan dynasty rulers from China, the Mongols continued to rule Mongolia homeland, known as the. The next centuries were marked by violent power struggles among various factions, notably the Genghisids and the non-Genghisid , as well as by several Chinese invasions such as the. In the early 15th century, the Oirads under gained the upper hand, and raided China in 1449 in a over Esen's right to pay tribute, capturing the Ming in the process. When Esen was murdered in 1454, the regained power. In the mid-16th century, of the Tümed, a grandson of — but not a hereditary or legitimate Khan — became powerful. He founded in 1557. After he met with the in 1578, he ordered the introduction of to Mongolia. It was the second time this had occurred. Abtai Khan of the converted to Buddhism and founded the monastery in 1585. His grandson became the first in 1640. Following the leaders, the entire Mongolian population embraced Buddhism. Each family kept scriptures and Buddha statues on an altar at the north side of their yurt. Mongolian nobles donated land, money and herders to the monasteries. As was typical in states with established religions, the top religious institutions, the monasteries, wielded significant temporal power in addition to spiritual power. The last Mongol Khan was in the early 17th century. He came into conflicts with the over the looting of Chinese cities, and also alienated most Mongol tribes. He died in 1634. By 1636 most tribes had submitted to the Manchus, who founded the. The Khalkha eventually submitted to Qing rule in 1691, thus bringing all of today's Mongolia under Manchu rule. After several wars, the the western Mongols or Oirats were virtually annihilated during the Qing conquest of Dzungaria in 1757—58. Some scholars estimate that about 80% of the 600,000 or more by a combination of disease and warfare. Outer Mongolia was given relative autonomy, being administered by the hereditary Genghisid khanates of Tusheet Khan, Setsen Khan, Zasagt Khan and Sain Noyon Khan. The of Mongolia had immense de facto authority. The Manchu forbade mass Chinese immigration into the area, which allowed the Mongols to keep their culture. The Oirats who migrated to the in Russia became known as. The main trade route during this period was the through Siberia; it had permanent stations located every 25 to 30 kilometres 16 to 19 mi , each of which was staffed by 5—30 chosen families. Urga present-day benefited greatly from this overland trade, as it was the only major settlement in Outer Mongolia used as a stopover point by merchants, officials and travelers on the Tea Road. Over the course of the 19th century, the feudal lords attached more importance to representation and less importance to the responsibilities towards their subjects. The behaviour of Mongolia's nobility, together with practices by Chinese traders and the collection of imperial taxes in silver instead of animals, resulted in poverty among the nomads becoming widespread. By 1911 there were 700 large and small monasteries in Outer Mongolia; their 115,000 monks made up 21% of the population. Apart from the Jebtsundamba Khutuktu, there were 13 other reincarnating high lamas, called 'seal-holding saints' tamgatai khutuktu , in Outer Mongolia. Modern history The eighth , Bogd Khaan With the fall of the Qing dynasty in 1911, Mongolia under the declared independence. But, the newly established considered Mongolia to be part of its own territory. Bogd Khaan said that both Mongolia and China had been administered by the during the Qing, and after the fall of the Qing dynasty in 1911, the contract of Mongolian submission to the Manchu had become invalid. The area controlled by the Bogd Khaan was approximately that of the former during the Qing period. In 1919, after the in Russia, Chinese troops led by occupied Mongolia. Warfare erupted on the northern border. As a result of the , the Russian led his troops into Mongolia in October 1920, defeating the Chinese forces in Ulaanbaatar in early February 1921 with support by Mongols. To eliminate the threat posed by Ungern, decided to support establishing a communist Mongolian government and army. This Mongolian army took the of from Chinese forces on March 18, 1921, and on July 6 Russian and Mongolian troops arrived in Khüree. Mongolia declared its independence again on July 11, 1921. As a result, Mongolia was closely aligned with the Soviet Union over the next seven decades. In 1924, after the died of or, as some sources claim, at the hands of Russian spies, the country's was changed. In 1928, rose to power. The early leaders of the Mongolian People's Republic 1921—1952 were not communists and many of them were. The forcefully established a in Mongolia by later exterminating Pan-Mongolists. Khorloogiin Choibalsan instituted of livestock, began the destruction of the , and carried out the , which resulted in the murders of numerous monks and other leaders. In Mongolia during the 1920s, approximately one-third of the male population were monks. By the beginning of the 20th century, about 750 monasteries were functioning in Mongolia. In 1930 Soviet Union stopped migration to the Mongolian People's Republic to prevent Mongolian reunification. All leaders of Mongolia who did not fulfill 's demands to perform against Mongolians were executed, including and. The , which began in 1937, killed more than 30,000 people. Choibalsan died suspiciously in Soviet Union in 1952. Mongolian troops fight against the Japanese counterattack at , 1939 After the in 1931, Mongolia was threatened on this front. During the of 1939, the Soviet Union successfully defended Mongolia against Japanese expansionism. Mongolia fought against Japan during the in 1939 and during the in August 1945 to liberate from Japan and China. The February 1945 provided for the Soviet Union's participation in the Pacific War. One of the Soviet conditions for its participation, put forward at Yalta, was that after the war Outer Mongolia would retain its independence. After the establishment of the , both countries confirmed their mutual recognition on October 6, 1949. However, the used its in 1955, to stop the admission of the to the United Nations on the grounds it recognized all of Mongolia —including Outer Mongolia— as part of China. This was the only time the Republic Of China ever used its veto. Hence, and because of the repeated threats to veto by the ROC, Mongolia did not join the UN until 1961 when the agreed to lift its veto on the admission of and any other newly independent African state , in return for the admission of Mongolia. Faced with pressure from nearly all the other African countries, the ROC relented under protest. Mongolia and Mauritania were both admitted to the UN on 27 October 1961. While Tsedenbal was visiting Moscow in August 1984, his severe illness prompted the parliament to announce his retirement and replace him with. The collapse of the Soviet Union in 1989 strongly influenced Mongolian politics and. Its people undertook the in 1990 and the introduction of a multi-party system and a market economy. The transition to market economy has often been rocky; during the early 1990s the country had to deal with high inflation and food shortages. China has supported Mongolia's application for membership in to the Asia Cooperation Dialogue ACD , APEC and granting it in the. The in , close to the birthplace of Genghis Khan. At 1,564,116 km 2 603,909 sq mi , Mongolia is the world's country after. It is significantly larger than the next-largest country,. It mostly lies between latitudes and a small area is north of 52° , and longitudes and. As a point of reference the northernmost part of Mongolia is on roughly the same latitude as Berlin Germany and Amsterdam Netherlands , while the southernmost part is on roughly the same latitude as Rome Italy and Chicago USA. The westernmost part of Mongolia is on roughly the same longitude as Kolkata India , while the easternmost part is on the same longitude as Qinhuangdao China and Hangzhou China , as well as the western edge of Taiwan. Although Mongolia does not share a border with , its westernmost point is only 36. The geography of Mongolia is varied, with the to the south and with cold and mountainous regions to the north and west. Much of Mongolia consists of the , with forested areas comprising 11. The whole of Mongolia is considered to be part of the. The highest point in Mongolia is the in the massif in the far west at 4,374 m 14,350 ft. The basin of the , shared with in Russia, is a natural. Climate of the near Ulaanbaatar. A vast front of cold, heavy, shallow air comes in from Siberia in winter and collects in river valleys and low basins causing very cold temperatures while slopes of mountains are much warmer due to the effects of temperature increases with altitude. In winter the whole of Mongolia comes under the influence of the. The localities most severely affected by this cold weather are Uvs province , western Khovsgol , eastern Zavkhan , northern Bulgan Hutag and eastern Dornod province Khalkhiin Gol. Ulaanbaatar is also strongly affected but not as severely. The cold gets less severe as one goes south, reaching the warmest January temperatures in Omnogovi Province , and the region of the Altai mountains bordering China. A unique microclimate is the fertile grassland-forest region of central and eastern Arkhangai Province and northern Ovorkhangai Province where January temperatures are on average the same and often higher than the warmest desert regions to the south in addition to being more stable. The play a certain role in forming this microclimate. The country is subject to occasional harsh climatic conditions known as. Mongolia is high, cold, and windy. It has an extreme continental climate with long, cold winters and short summers, during which most of its annual precipitation falls. The country averages 257 cloudless days a year, and it is usually at the center of a region of high atmospheric pressure. Precipitation is highest in the north average of 200 to 350 millimeters 7. The highest annual precipitation of 622. The sparsely populated far north of Bulgan Province averages 600 mm 23. Wildlife by sand dunes in Gobi Desert. Gobi rangelands are fragile and are easily destroyed by overgrazing, which results in expansion of the true desert, a stony waste where not even can survive. The arid conditions in the Gobi are attributed to the caused by the Himalayas. Before the Himalayas were formed by the collision of the Indo-Australian plate with the Eurasian plate 10 million years ago Mongolia was a flourishing habitat for major fauna but still somewhat arid and cold due to distance from sources of evaporation. Sea turtle and mollusk fossils have been found in the Gobi apart from the more well-known dinosaur fossils. Lepidurus mongolicus are still found in the Gobi today. The eastern part of Mongolia including the , rivers and form part of the basin draining to the Pacific Ocean. Mongolia's total population as of January 2015 is estimated by at 3,000,251 people, ranking at around 121st in the world in terms of population. But the uses the United Nations UN estimations instead of the U. Population Division estimates Mongolia's total population mid-2007 as 2,629,000 11% less than the U. UN estimates resemble those made by the Mongolian National Statistical Office 2,612,900, end of June 2007. Mongolia's population growth rate is estimated at 1. About 59% of the total population is under age 30, 27% of whom are under 14. This relatively and growing population has placed strains on Mongolia's economy. The first census in the 20th century was carried out in 1918 and recorded a population of 647,500. Since the end of socialism, Mongolia has experienced a decline of children per woman that is steeper than in any other country in the world, according to recent UN estimations: in 1970—1975, fertility was estimated to be 7. Recently, however, that trend has been stopped, so in 2005—2010 period, the estimated fertility value has actually increased to 2. Ethnic Mongols account for about 95% of the population and consist of Khalkha and other groups, all distinguished primarily by dialects of the Mongol language. The make up 86% of the ethnic Mongol population. The remaining 14% include , and others. Languages The official language of Mongolia is , and is spoken by 95% of the population. A variety of of and are spoken across the country, and there are also some speakers of Khamnigan. In the west of the country, and , both , are also spoken. Today, Mongolian is written using the , although in the past it was written using the. An official reintroduction of the old script was planned for 1994, but has not taken place as older generations encountered practical difficulties. The traditional alphabet is being slowly reintroduced through schools. Interest in , as the language of the other neighbouring power, has been growing. Many younger people are fluent in the Western European languages as they study or work in, among other places, Germany, France and Italy. Two of the most popular dishes are a meat filled steamed dumpling and a sort of deep-fried meat pie. Religion Grounds of Dambadarjaalin Monastery in , with a , in front of a sacred mount with inscribed on the slope and a on the top. According to the 2010 National Census, among Mongolians aged 15 and above, 53% were , while 39% were. Religions in Mongolia population aged 15 and above Religion Population Share % Non-religious 735,283 38. They gradually gave way to , but shamanism has left a mark on Mongolian religious culture, and it continues to be practiced. The Kazakhs residing in western Mongolia, some Mongols and other Turkic peoples in the country traditionally adhere to. Throughout much of the 20th century, the government ensured that the religious practices of the Mongolian people were largely repressed. It targeted the clergy of the Mongolian Buddhist Church, which had been tightly intertwined with the previous feudal government structures e. In the late 1930s, the regime, then led by , closed almost all of Mongolia's over 700 Buddhist monasteries and. The number of dropped from 100,000 in 1924 to 110 in 1990. The in 1991 restored public religious practice. The end of religious repression in the 1990s also allowed for other religions to spread in the country. According to the Christian missionary group , the number of Christians grew from just four in 1989 to around 40,000 as of 2008. In May 2013, LDS Church held a cultural program to celebrate 20 years of LDS Church history in Mongolia, with 10,900 members, and 16 church buildings in the country. There are some 1,000 Catholics in Mongolia and, in 2003, a missionary from the was named Mongolia's first bishop. The people also elect the deputies in the national assembly, the. The President appoints the Prime Minister, and nominates the Cabinet on the proposal of the prime minister. The guarantees a number of freedoms, including full and. Mongolia has a number of political parties; the largest are the and the. The non-governmental organisation considers Mongolia to be free. The People's Party — known as the People's Revolutionary Party between 1924 and 2010 — formed the government of the country from 1921 to 1996 in a until 1990 and from 2000 to 2004. From 2004 to 2006, it was part of a coalition with the Democrats and two other parties, and after 2006 it was the dominant party in two other coalitions. The party initiated two changes of government from 2004 until it lost power in a 2012 election. The Democrats were the dominant force in a ruling coalition between 1996 and 2000, and an almost-equal partner with the People's Revolutionary Party in a coalition between 2004 and 2006. An election of deputies to the national assembly on 28 June 2012 resulted in no party having an overall majority; however, as the Democratic Party won the largest number of seats, its leader, , was appointed on August 10, 2012. In 2014, he was replaced by. The won a landslide victory in the and the current is 's. Mongolia's President with U. Secretary of State , June 2016 The has functions like vetoing the laws made by parliament, appointing judges and justice of courts and appoint ambassadors abroad. The parliament can override that veto by a two-thirds majority vote. Mongolia's constitution provides three requirements for taking office as president; the candidate must be a native-born Mongolian, be at least 45 years old, and have resided in Mongolia for five years before taking office. The president must also suspend their party membership. Elbegdorj was re-elected on June 26, 2013 and was inaugurated on July 10, 2013 for his second term as president. Mongolia uses a , The State Great Khural, with 76 seats, which is chaired by the speaker of the house. Its members are directly elected, every four years, on parliamentary elections, by popular vote. Foreign relations Mongolia's President and in , September 2017 Mongolia's foreign relations have been traditionally focused on its two large neighbors, and the. Mongolia is economically dependent on these countries; China receives 90% of Mongolia's exports by value and accounts for 60% of its foreign trade while Russia supplies 90% of Mongolia's energy requirements. It has begun seeking positive relations with a wider range of other nations especially in cultural and economic matters, focusing on encouraging foreign investments and trade. Embassies Main article: Mongolia supported the , and has sent several successive contingents of 103 to 180 troops each to. About 130 troops are currently deployed in. From 2005 to 2006, about 40 troops were deployed with the Belgian and Luxembourg contingents in. On November 21, 2005, became the first-ever sitting U. President to visit Mongolia. In 2004, under the Bulgarian chairmanship, the OSCE invited Mongolia as its newest Asian Partner. Legal system Main article: The judiciary of Mongolia is made up of a three-tiered system: courts in each and each ; courts for each province and also the Capital Ulaanbaatar; and the court of last resort for non-constitutional matters at the. For questions of constitutional law there is a separate. A JGC nominates judges which must then be confirmed by the and appointed by the President. Arbitration centres provide options for commercial and other disputes. Administrative divisions View of Ulaanbaatar with the. Economic activity in Mongolia has traditionally been based on herding and agriculture, although development of extensive mineral deposits of copper, coal, , tin, , and gold have emerged as a driver of industrial production. The is estimated to be at least one-third the size of the official economy. As of 2006 , 68. Mongolia is ranked as lower middle income economy by the. Despite growth, the proportion of the population below the poverty line was estimated to be 35. Because of a boom in the mining sector, Mongolia had high growth rates in 2007 and 2008 9. In 2009, sharp drops in commodity prices and the effects of the global financial crisis caused the local currency to drop 40% against the U. Two of the 16 commercial banks were taken into receivership. In 2011, GDP growth was expected to reach 16. However, inflation continued to erode GDP gains, with an average rate of 12. Although GDP has risen steadily since 2002 at the rate of 7. The Economist predicted this trade deficit of 14% of Mongolia's GDP would transform into a surplus in 2013. The , established in 1991 in Ulaanbaatar, is among the world's smallest by. Mineral industry employs 18,000 workers and expects to be producing 450,000 tonnes of copper a year by 2020 Minerals represent more than 80% of Mongolia's exports, a proportion expected to eventually rise to 95%. About 3,000 mining licences have been issued. Mining is continuing to rise as a major industry of Mongolia as evidenced by the number of Chinese, Russian and Canadian firms starting mining businesses in Mongolia. In March 2011, six big mining companies prepared to bid for the area, the world's largest untapped coal deposit. According to Erdenes MGL, the government body in-charge of Tavan Tolgoi, , , , U. Agriculture Mongolian ferry Sukhbaatar on in Khovsgol Province. The is the main rail link between Mongolia and its neighbors. It begins at the in Russia at the town of , crosses into Mongolia, runs through Ulaanbaatar, then passes into China at where it joins the Chinese railway system. A separate railroad link connects the eastern city of with the Trans-Siberian Railway. However, that link is closed to passengers after the Mongolian town of. Mongolia has a number of domestic airports with some of them having international status. However, the main international airport is , located approximately 20 km 12 mi from downtown Ulaanbaatar. Direct flight connections exist between Mongolia and South Korea, China, Thailand, Hong Kong, Japan, Russia, Germany, Kyrgyzstan, and Turkey. Many overland roads in Mongolia are only gravel roads or simple cross-country tracks. There are paved roads from Ulaanbaatar to the Russian and Chinese borders, from Ulaanbaatar east- and westward the so-called Millenium Road , and from Darkhan to. A number of road construction projects are currently underway. Mongolia has 4,800 km 3,000 mi of paved roads, with 1,800 km 1,100 mi of that total completed in 2013 alone. Education During the state socialist period, education was one of the areas of significant achievement in Mongolia. Before the , literacy rates were below one percent. By 1952, illiteracy was virtually eliminated, in part through the use of seasonal boarding schools for children of nomadic families. Funding to these boarding schools was cut in the 1990s, contributing to slightly increased illiteracy. Primary and secondary education formerly lasted 10 years, but was expanded to 11 years. Since the 2008—2009 school year, new first-graders are using the 12-year system, and a full transition to the 12-year system will not occur until the 2019—2020 school year, when the current third-graders graduate. As of 2006 , English is taught in all secondary schools across Mongolia, beginning in fourth grade. Mongolian national universities are all spin-offs from the and the. Almost three in five Mongolian youths now enroll in university. There was a six-fold increase in students between 1993 and 2010. Health Since 1990, key health indicators like life expectancy and and have steadily improved, both due to social changes and to improvement in the health sector. Yet, adult health deteriorated during the 1990s and the first decade of the 21st century and mortality rates increased significantly. Serious problems remain, especially in the countryside. According to a 2011 study by the , Mongolia's capital city of has the second-most fine particle pollution of any city in the world. Poor air quality is also the largest occupational hazard, as over two-thirds of occupational disease in Mongolia is dust induced chronic or. Average childbirth is around 2. Infant mortality is at 1. Mongolia has the highest rate of liver cancer in the world by a significant margin. In 2002, the total number of health workers was 33,273, of whom 6823 were doctors, 788 pharmacists, 7802 nurses, and 14,091 mid-level personnel. At present, there are 27. Sita White Tara by Öndör Gegeen. Mongolia, 17th century Before the 20th century, most works of the fine arts in Mongolia had a religious function, and therefore Mongolian fine arts were heavily influenced by religious texts. Bronze sculptures usually showed Buddhist deities. A number of great works are attributed to the first ,. In the late 19th century, painters like turned to more realistic painting styles. Among the first attempts to introduce into the fine arts of Mongolia was the painting Ehiin setgel Mother's love created by Tsevegjav in the 1960s. The artist was purged as his work was censored. Architecture A in front of the The traditional Mongolian dwelling is known as a ger. In the past it was known by the Russian term yurt, but this is changing as the Mongolian term becomes better known among English-speaking countries. According to Mongolian artist and art critic , the ger was the basis for development of traditional Mongolian architecture. In the 16th and 17th centuries, lamaseries were built throughout the country. Many of them started as ger-temples. Further enlargement led to a quadratic shape of the temples. The roofs were made in the shape of marquees. The trellis walls, roof poles and layers of felt were replaced by stone, brick, beams and planks, and became permanent. Chultem distinguished three styles in traditional Mongolian architecture: Mongolian, and as well as combinations of the three. Among the first quadratic temples was Batu-Tsagaan 1654 designed by. An example of the ger-style architecture is the lamasery Dashi-Choiling in Ulaanbaatar. The temple Lavrin 18th century in the lamasery was built in the Tibetan tradition. An example of a temple built in the Chinese tradition is the lamasery Choijing Lamiin Sume 1904 , which is a museum today. The quadratic temple Tsogchin in lamasery Gandan in Ulaanbaatar is a combination of the Mongolian and Chinese tradition. The temple of Maitreya disassembled in 1938 is an example of the Tibeto-Mongolian architecture. Dashi-Choiling monastery has commenced a project to restore the temple and the 25 metres 82 ft sculpture of Maitreya. Music Musician playing the traditional Mongolian musical instrument The music of Mongolia is strongly influenced by nature, nomadism, shamanism, and also Tibetan Buddhism. The first rock band of Mongolia was , founded in the 1960s. Their -like manner was severely criticized by the Communist censorship. It was followed by Mungunhurhree, Ineemseglel, Urgoo, etc. Mungunhurhree and were to become the pioneers in the Mongolia's heavy rock music. Haranga approached its zenith in the late 1980s and 1990s. The leader of Haranga, famous guitarist Enh-Manlai, generously helped the growth of the following generations of rockers. Among the followers of Haranga was the band. By that time, the environment for development of artistic thought had become largely liberal thanks to the new democratic society in the country. The 1990s saw development of rap, techno, hip-hop and also boy bands and girl bands flourish at the turn of the millennium. Media Mongolian media interviewing the opposition. The media has gained significant freedoms since democratic reforms initiated in the 1990s. Until reforms in the 1990s, the government had strict control of the media and oversaw all publishing, in which no independent media was allowed. The had a significant impact on Mongolia, where the grew into a democracy, and with that, media freedoms came to the forefront. A new law on press freedom, drafted with help from international NGOs on August 28, 1998 and enacted on January 1, 1999, paved the way for media reforms. The Mongolian media currently consists of around 300 print and broadcasting outlets. Since 2006, the media environment has been improving with the government debating a new , and the removal of any affiliation of media outlets with the government. Market reforms have led to an increasing number of people working in the media year on year, along with students at journalism schools. In its 2013 World Press Freedom Index report, classified the media environment as 98th out of 179, with 1st being most free. In 2016, Mongolia was ranked 60th out of 180. According to 2014 Asian Development Bank survey, 80% of Mongolians cited TV as their main source of information. Sports is the largest summer celebration The main national festival is , which has been organised for centuries and takes place over three days in the summer, consists of three Mongolian traditional sports, , horse-racing over long stretches of open country, not the short racing around a track practiced in the West , and wrestling, traditionally recognized as the Three Manly Games of Nadaam. In modern-day Mongolia, Naadam is held on July 11 to 13 in the honour of the anniversaries of the National Democratic Revolution and foundation of the Great Mongol State. At Naadam, this contest is very popular and develops a serious audience among older Mongolians. Riders during festival is especially central to Mongolian culture. The long-distance races that are showcased during Naadam festivals are one aspect of this, as is the popularity of trick riding. One example of trick riding is the legend that the Mongolian military hero scattered coins on the ground and then picked them up while riding a horse at full gallop. It is the highlight of the Three Manly Games of Naadam. Historians claim that Mongol-style wrestling originated some seven thousand years ago. Hundreds of wrestlers from different cities and aimags around the country take part in the national wrestling competition. Other sports such as basketball, , , and association football, athletics, gymnastics, table tennis, , , , , have become popular in Mongolia. More Mongolian table tennis players are competing internationally. Mongolian freestyle wrestlers have won the first and the most Olympic medals of Mongolia. Mongolian olympic boxing national team was founded in 1960. Communist government of Mongolia banned boxing during the period 1964—1967 but the government ended ban on boxing soon. Traditional enjoyed some success recently, especially at the. Association football is also played in Mongolia. The began playing national games again during the 1990s; but has not yet qualified for a major international tournament. The is the top domestic competition. Several Mongolian women have excelled in : is a silver medalist of the 2008 Olympic Games, is a double world champion and Olympic bronze medal winner now representing Germany , while is, as of May 2007, ranked third in the world in the event. Mongolian wrestler won 25 top division tournament championships, placing him fourth on the. In January 2015, took his 33rd top division championship, giving him the most in the history of sumo. It led to being chosen as the best Mongolian sport team of 2011. Mongolia was proud to win the bronze medal of the B division at the after which the then , , held a reception for the team. Ulaanbataar holds an annual marathon in June. The race starts at Sukh Bataar Square and is always open to residents and runners who come especially for this unique event. Festivals Mongolia holds many traditional festivals throughout the year. It features three sporting events: wrestling, archery and horse racing, amongst other traditional games and exhibits. The draws about 400 eagle hunters on horseback, including the traveler Мөнхбаярт Батсайхан Munkhbayart Batsaikhan , to compete with their birds. The and the are amongst many other traditional Mongolian festivals. Archived from on November 1, 2011. Retrieved August 9, 2015. Graduate School of International Relations and Pacific Studies. United States: University of California, San Diego. Archived from PDF on August 19, 2008. Retrieved 21 February 2016. PDF from the original on March 4, 2016. Retrieved February 21, 2016. Such powers are especially relevant if an extraordinary majority is required to override a veto, as in Mongolia, Poland, and Senegal. 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